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False claimants to the Mahdi
List of Topics :
-False Claimants in the Umayyehd Era
-False Claimants in the Abbasid Era
-False Claimants from the Safavid to the Qajar Era
-False Claimants from the Qajar Era to the Islamic Revolution of Iran
-False Claimants in the Present Era.
False claims in the realm of Mahdism,' given their various forms, historical extension, and negative consequences such as sectarianism, the waste of the Shia community's capacities, and the distortion of the salvific idea of Mahdism, have long been a subject of attention and scrutiny. The Iranian society has not been immune to these claimants throughout its history, as reported:
False Claimants in the Umayyehd Era
Understanding false claimants to Mahdism throughout history reveals the exploitation of the authentic culture of Imamate and Mahdism. Some of these claimants, with organized structures, succeeded in forming sects and even governments. The claims of others led nowhere, so they continued their false activities on a limited scale. Yet others had their claims of Mahdism put forth by their supporters after their deaths, for various motives. The important point is that the scope of formation for some of these movements was within Iran, while for others, it was outside Iran, primarily in Iraq. However, their propaganda and sphere of activity extended to Iran. For example, during the Umayyehd Caliphate (662-750 AD), three movements – Kaysaniyyeh, Hashimiyah, and Jihaniyyeh were active in Iran intermittently.
Kaysaniyyeh :
The Kaysaniyyeh were a Shi'a sect of Islam that emerged emong the followers of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi. Mukhtar al-Thaqafi was a figure who, after the events of Karbala and the brutal massacre of Imam Hussein (the third Shi'a Imam) and his 72 companions, rose to avenge them and killed many of Imam Hussein's assassins.
The Kaysaniyyeh claimed that the fourth Imam, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyeh, who was Imam Hussein's half-brother, was the rightful successor. The name Kaysaniyyeh is likely derived from Kaysan Abu 'Amrah, the chief of Mukhtar's guards and commander of his army.
The Kaysaniyyeh shared the following beliefs:
*They condemned the first three caliphs before Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib as illegitimate usurpers and believed that society had gone astray by accepting their rule.
*They believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib and his three sons, Hasan, Hussein, and Muhammad (nicknamed Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyeh), were divinely appointed Imams and successive successors to the Prophet of Islam, possessing supernatural qualities.
* They believed that Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyeh was the awaited Mahdi.
Hashimiyyeh :
One of the Shi'a sects that emerged in history is the Hashimiyyeh sect. In reality, this sect is a continuation of the Kaysaniyyeh. However, after the death of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyeh, the Kaysaniyyeh split into two groups: some believed he was alive and in occultation, forming the Karbiyyeh sect, while others believed he had died. This latter group continued on their path and beliefs by choosing Muhammad's son, thereby preventing the collapse of Kaysani beliefs into a new sect.
they adhered to the Imamate of his son, Abdullah, known as "Abu Hashim" (714-719 AD). According to Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 967 AD), the Shi'ites of Khorasan considered his son, Abu Hashim, as Imam after the death of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyeh.
Janahiyyeh :
The beliefs of this sect deviated significantly from the teachings of Islam and the Holy Quran. They believed in reincarnation and transmigration of souls , asserting that souls move from one body to another.
According to their beliefs, the divine spirit manifested in Adam, then passed through various prophets, culminating in Prophet Muhammad. From him, it descended to Ali and his sons: Hasan, Hussein, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyeh. From Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyeh, it transferred to his son Abu Hashim, and from Abu Hashim to Abdullah, son of Mu'awiyah.
Abdullah, son of Mu'awiyah, not only claimed prophethood but also divinity.
Furthermore, the Janahiyyeh believed that the souls of the Prophet's companions had inhabited their bodies, leading them to adopt the companions' names.
Based on these tenets, they also believed in the indestructibility of the world, denied the resurrection and the hereafter (heaven and hell), which are fundamental pillars of Islamic belief, and considered reward and punishment to be solely confined to earthly life.
This sect ruled for a period (year 746 AD) in the regions of Isfahan, Qumis, Halwan, Istakhr, and Ray. The leader of this sect was killed in Herat by Abu Muslim Khorasani ( 757 AD).
False Claimants in the Abbasid Era
During the Abbasid era ( 752–1258 AD), two movements, Isma'iliyyeh and Jarudiyyeh Zaydiyyeh, were active. With the demise of the Abbasid Caliphate and the establishment of local governments in some parts of the Islamic world, including Iran, numerous deviant movements emerged. Among the most significant deviant movements, often associated with Sufi ideas, one can mention Hurufiyyeh, Nuqtaviyyeh, Mash'ashiyyeh, and Nur Bakhshiyyeh.
Isma'iliyyeh :
Similar to the Twelver Shi'ites, the Ismailis share the same belief regarding the Imamate and its manifestations up to Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. However, some Shi'ites did not accept the death of Imam Sadiq's son, named "Ismail," and believed in his Imamate and Mahdism. Others accepted Ismail's death but believed the Imamate and Mahdism resided in "Muhammad," Ismail's son. This group had active callers (da'is) in Iran, the most important of whom were Khalaf al-Hallaj and his son, and later Ghiyath. They invited people to the Ismaili faith in Iran( Ray, Qom, Kashan, Talegan, Mimeh cities) and Afghanistan (Ghur and Herat cities).
Jarudiyyeh Zaydiyyeh :
The founder of this sect is Ziyad son of Mundhir, nicknamed "Abu Jarud" (167-177 AD). Among the followers of Jarudiyyeh, the name Muhammad ibn Qasim appears. Some of the Jarudiyyeh in Khorasan believed in the Mahdism of Muhammad ibn Qasim (likely around 834 AD) and believed that he had not died and would emerge.
The Jarudiyyeh believed that any descendant of Imam Hassan and Imam Hussein (peace be upon them) who was knowledgeable, ascetic, and brave, if they rose up and invited people to themselves, would be the Imam.
The Jarudiyyeh believed that the Prophet of Islam designated Ali ibn Abi Talib, Imam Hassan, and Imam Hussein as Imams through divine appointment (nass).
However, after these three, they denied the existence of specific divine designation for any individual Imam. Instead, they believed that the Imamate would not exit the lineage of Fatima (the esteemed daughter of the Prophet of Islam and wife of Imam Ali).
The Jarudiyyeh considered the condition for accepting a claim to the Imamate to be solely the act of rising up and leading a revolt. They also dissociated themselves from the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, considering them infidels for setting aside Imam Ali and usurping his position.
The beliefs of the Jarudiyyeh can be divided into three categories:
*Those who believed in the Mahdism and return (raj'ah) of Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Nafs al-Zakiyyeh (died 145 AH/762 AD).
*Those who believed in the Mahdism of Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Thaqafi (died 219 AH/834 AD).
*Those who considered Yahya ibn Umar as the Qa'im (the one who rises) and awaited his return.
Hurufiyyeh :
Its founder is Fazlallah Na`imi Astarabadi (1393 AD). His teachings spread in various regions of Iran, especially Khorasan, Herat(It is now one of the provinces of Afghanistan.), Gilan, Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, and Isfahan ( In Iran ).
Astarabadi began interpreting dreams in Khwarazm (now part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan), gaining renown. He then continued this practice in Khorasan and Isfahan, attracting followers. After his pilgrimage from Mecca, he returned to Tabriz.
Fazlollah claimed to have had three dreams in Tabriz, from which he concluded that he was the Imam Mahdi. Thus, he began his call. He declared: "The 28 Arabic letters and 32 Persian letters are the foundation for knowing God. Prophethood reached its perfection in Prophet Muhammad, and the Imamate in Imam Ali. And I myself am the promised Mahdi, a prophet, and the vicegerent of God."
After some time, Fazlollah was arrested in Nakhchivan in 796 AH (1394 AD) by Sheikh Ibrahim, the ruler of Shirvan, based on the fatwas (legal rulings) of the scholars of Samarkand and Gilan. He was killed by Miran Shah, and his body was later burned in 804 AH (1402 AD) by Timur's order.
Nuqtaviyyeh :
The Naqtuyyeh is a sub-branch of the Hurufiyyeh sect that emerged as an important political and religious opposition movement in Safavid Iran after a period of one hundred years of isolation. In India, it also played an important role in establishing the divine religion, which was a combination of Islam, Hinduism, and Iranian religions, during the reign of the Indian king Akbar.
For them, soil is the starting point of everything, and the other three elements (water, wind, fire) are created from it.
During the era of Timur Lang (died 806 AH/1403 AD), Fazlollah Astarabadi (killed 796 AH/1394 AD) founded the "Hurufi" sect. However, by the end of this period, the Hurufis declined, and instead, the "Nuqtavi" sect gained power. They were influential for several centuries, impacting not only Iran but also India and Turkey.
Mahmoud Pasikhani, the founder of the Nuqtaviyyeh sect, was born in the village of Pasikhan, near Fuman in Gilan(in Iran). It is said that around 1421 AD, he declared himself the Mahdi and proclaimed a new sharia (Islamic law).
Mushasha'iyyeh :
The Mushasha'iyyeh movement, led by Sayyid Muhammad Musha'sha', was also among the power-seeking and deviant uprisings that, based on the Mahdist doctrine, emerged in the ninth century in the Mesopotamia and Khuzestan region, and succeeded in establishing power and a government in this area.
The serious commencement of Muhammad ibn Fallah's claim to the vicegerency of the Mahdi in 840 AH (one or two years before his teacher's death) should be understood after his stealthy acquisition of his teacher Ibn Fahd's book titled "Strange and Wonderful Sciences and Awe-Inspiring Miracles." Through this, he gained knowledge of some of the secrets and mysteries of esoteric sciences, enabling him to perform magical and sorcerous acts.
As Sayyid Muhammad's claims escalated, Ibn Fahd issued a death sentence against him. However, he convinced the ruler of Wasit that he was a Sunni Sufi and that Ibn Fahd and his followers were Shiites who had falsely condemned him due to enmity. In this way, he managed to escape death.
Afterward, with freedom of movement among the Arab tribes of southern Iraq and Khuzestan, he began his propaganda, rallying Arab tribes through the use of magic and sorcery, thereby gaining power and prestige.
From his surviving manuscripts, it is understood that he does not deny the occultation and reappearance of the twelfth Shiite Imam, Imam Mahdi. However, with a new definition, he presents his position and mission under titles such as "Maqam" (Station), "Hijab" (Veil), and "Niyabat" (Vicegerency), which are considered the most controversial and heretical aspects of his discourse.
From his perspective, Imam Mahdi (peace be upon him) possesses such power upon his reappearance that no one can confront him, and inevitably, all people will submit to him. This compulsion leaves no opportunity to test the righteous from the unrighteous. Therefore, the existence of Mahdi's vicegerent (i.e., Sayyid Muhammad himself) becomes necessary; a person who does not possess the power of Mahdi (peace be upon him) and requires assistance for victory. In this scenario, an opportunity arises for people to choose whether to be among the pious supporters of the Imam's deputy, Sayyid Muhammad, or among the rebellious.
Nur Bakhshiyyeh :
Sayyid Muhammad Nur Bakhsh (1393–1465 AD) is the founder of the Nur Bakhshiyyeh sect. In his self-introduction, using purposeful terminology such as "Manifestation of the Promised One" and "The Comprehensive Manifestation," he presented Mahdist claims. Nur Bakhsh rejects the occultation of the Twelfth Imam and states that the Imam's body has perished, and his attributes and functions are now manifested in him (Nur Bakhsh).
False Claimants from the Safavid to the Qajar Era
After a long period of internal conflicts in Iran, the 'Safavid' government (rule: 1501–1723 AD) was formed. The Safavid kings, utilizing various tools such as the claim of deputyship from Imam Mahdi, managed to establish political unity in Iran. The concept of deputyship from Imam Mahdi, whether put forth by the kings themselves or their supporters, was seriously considered.
After the fall of the Safavids, primarily two governments, the Afsharids and the Zands, ruled in Iran, during which sectarian Mahdist claimants are not observed.
False Claimants from the Qajar Era to the Islamic Revolution of Iran
With the establishment of the Qajar government, deviant Mahdist movements emerged, some of which have persisted to this day and continue their deviant activities seriously. Specifically, Shaykhism, Bábism, and Baháʼism are considered the most famous deviant sects of that era. Some of them, like the Bábí movement, posed challenges to the Qajar rulers, while others, like Baháʼism during the Pahlavi era, had significant involvement and influence in the country's administrative system. After the Qajars, during the Pahlavi era, concurrently with the nationalization of the oil industry in Iran's oil-rich regions, the Tolou'iyan movement emerged with the slogan of the approaching advent. For about two years, parts of the Bakhtiari regions of Iran were influenced by this movement.
Sheykhiyyeh :
The Sheykhiyyeh sect emerged in the first half of the thirteenth century based on the teachings of the Shia scholar Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsa'i (d. 1241 AH = 1825 AD). This sect holds specific creedal inclinations. For instance, Shaykh Ahmad believed that His Holiness Hujjah resides in the "world of Hurqalya." The Shaykhis of Kerman(Kerman, the capital of Kerman province, is one of the cities located in southeastern Iran.) also believe that there are individuals who, due to their merit, level of piety, and being Shia, have reached a status where no one else can communicate with the Imam except them.
This belief is called the "Fourth Principle" and, after Tawhid (monotheism), Ma'ad (resurrection), and Imamate, constitutes the most fundamental part of their beliefs. After the death of al-Ahsa'i, his followers, without any dispute, considered Sayyid Kazim Rashti as his deputy. Sayyid Rashti took over his master's position when he was thirty years younger. Through his oratory, pen, and book compositions, he undertook the dissemination of his master's ideas.
Bábiyyeh :
Ali Muhammad Shirazi, known as "Bab," the son of Mirza Reza Bazzaz, is the founder of the "Bábí" sect. After the death of Sayyid Kazim Rashti (Died in 1841 AD), Ali Muhammad Bab claimed to be the "Bab" (Gate). Eighteen of Sayyid Kazim Rashti's students, all of whom were Shaykhis, gathered around him. After claiming to be the Bab in 1844 AD, he escalated his claim and declared himself the "Promised Mahdi." Concurrent with Bab's claim, riots and insecurities arose in the country, leading politicians, including Amir Kabir, to decide on his execution. Ultimately, Ali Muhammad Bab was executed in Tabriz Square in Sha'ban 1851 AD.
Baháʼiyyeh :
Baha'iyyeh is a religious sect that branched off from the Babi faith, founded in the 13th century AH (19th century AD) by Mirza Hussein Ali Nuri, known as Baha'u'llah.
Mirza Hussein Ali was a follower of Sayyid Ali Muhammad Bab.
Baha'is consider Baha'u'llah to be a prophet and Baha'ism to be a new religion that has abrogated Islam. Baha'u'llah believed that the resurrection of Muslims began with the arrival of the Bab and ended with his death. Similarly, the resurrection of the Babis began with the advent of Baha'u'llah and concluded with his death.
The Universal House of Justice is the most important center for Baha'is and the authority for all their affairs. This center is located on Mount Carmel in Haifa.
The claims of divinity, prophethood, and being the Promised One made by Baha'u'llah contradict Islamic beliefs and are considered a form of idolatry and self-worship.
Although Baha'is claim that Baha'u'llah is not God, but rather a servant who has attained the station of Divine Manifestation and is God's manifestation on Earth; however, researchers and critics of Baha'ism, citing Baha'u'llah's own words, believe that Baha'is consider him to be the God of the worlds. Among these is the famous phrase: "There is no God but Me, Who is the Everlasting, the Unique, and the Ancient... There is no God but Me, the Generous and the Kind," which is among Baha'u'llah's written claims.
Mirza Hussein Ali Nuri also claimed prophethood in his books, calling himself a prophet of God . His son, Abbas Effendi, the second leader of the Baha'is, also placed Ali Muhammad Bab among prophets such as Abraham (peace be upon him), Moses (peace be upon him), Jesus (peace be upon him), and Muhammad (peace be upon him), considering Bab as the harbinger of Baha'u'llah's appearance. In his view, Baha'u'llah is among, and even superior to, those prophets.
In the Baha'i faith, the afterlife is spoken of vaguely, suggesting only that a realm exists after death. Baha'is interpret what the Quran says about the Day of Judgment and its characteristics as the uprising of the Bab and Baha'u'llah.
The Bab, in his book "The Bayan," stated that with his arrival, the resurrection of Muslims began, and it would persist as long as he lived, concluding upon his death. From Baha'u'llah's perspective, the resurrection of the Babis began with his appearance and would also end with his death.
Tolou'iyan :
Concurrently with the nationalization of the oil industry in Iran, a movement called "Tolu'ian" emerged within the Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi tribes (historical Iranian ethnic groups). The leader of the Bakhtiari people was Mr. Jeacocks (later revealed to be an English spy), and the leader of the Boyer-Ahmadis was Agha Baba Rezaei. This movement was formed with various slogans, including the misuse of the Mahdist doctrine, and it dissolved shortly thereafter.
During the period of oil nationalization under the premiership of Mosaddegh ( 1330-1332 SH / 1951-1953 AD), Britain exerted all its efforts to reverse the situation. In this regard, along with strong protests against the Iranian government, it considered the oil nationalization law a unilateral violation of the 1933 agreement. To resolve this issue, Britain took several measures, including seeking help from America and filing a complaint with the International Court of Justice at The Hague.
In addition to these two actions, in 1330 SH (1951 AD), in the oil-rich regions of Khuzestan, a movement known as the "Tolu'ian" was formed by mobilizing the people amidst the Bakhtiari and Boyer-Ahmadi tribes.
Influential figures of the Tolu'ian movement:
Mr. Jeacocks :
This event, within a limited timeframe, encompassed the majority of the present-day province of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, areas of Khuzestan, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Fars, and Isfahan. This quasi-religious movement, which emphasized renunciation of the world and detachment from it, withdrawal from worldly affairs, and the worthlessness of worldly possessions, land, and oil, was attributed among the Bakhtiari tribe to an Englishman named "Jeacocks," who allegedly designed and promoted it. After the end of World War II, Jeacocks was employed by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
It is said that the real governance of the oil-rich regions was in his hands. In 1329 SH (1950 AD), when the issue of oil nationalization arose, Jeacocks made every effort to prevent the nationalization of the oil industry, aiming to neutralize and dismantle the oil nationalization movement and ensure the continued dominance of British colonialism over Iran, especially its oil regions.
He initially exerted his influence among the Bakhtiari tribes through tricks such as an electric cane, a fire-resistant turban and beard, magic shows, and creating snake and viper shapes.
By demeaning some local clerics and overcoming them, he managed to win the trust of many ordinary people. Many, influenced by Jeacocks and his agents, formed groups, each headed by a leader (Sar-Tolou'i). Jeacocks' sedition reached its peak when, in opposition to oil nationalization, he invoked Imam Mahdi and declared to the Bakhtiari tribes that in a meeting he had with Imam Mahdi in the Bakhtiari region, the Imam had asked him to inform the people that anyone following Hazrat Ali and his family should abandon oil nationalization. This English agent, by touring among the Bakhtiari tribes, devised a slogan for them in the Bakhtiari dialect, to the effect that: "For one who is a supporter and enamored of Ali, what need is there for oil and other worldly possessions! Worldly matters are worthless in comparison to the love of Ali, and the love of Ali is sufficient."
For this reason, some simple-minded and unaware Bakhtiari tribesmen abandoned their lives and, forming multiple groups and making various flags and banners, chanting "Ali, Ali," went to the Imamzadehs (shrines of descendants of Imams) and sought forgiveness. Consequently, that year became known as the "Year of Tolou'i" or "Soroush."
Agha Reza Babaei :
Among the Boyer-Ahmadis, a mystic figure named "Agha Baba Rezaei" assumed the leadership role. Agha Baba, who was well-known and held a significant social position, managed this movement.
The most fundamental and important claim attributed to Agha Baba is that he claimed to be the vicegerent of Imam Mahdi. Agha Baba began making unusual and strange claims, disseminating captivating and exciting news about the advent of the end times and the approaching days of settling accounts between right and wrong.
Agha Baba asserted that the era of the end times had arrived and it was time for Imam Mahdi to appear, to call everyone to the right path, to distinguish truth from falsehood, to separate Muslims from infidels, and to eliminate the impious by the sword, so that only the good and the pure would remain. He said: "Whenever the dawn encompasses all places, and hearts become kind to one another, minds think nobly, and people's actions are pleasing, our savior will reveal himself and come, and with his appearance, the world will be filled with joy, justice, and equity."
False Claimants in the Present Era
With the victory of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, the concept of Mahdism became much more prominent than before, and we witness numerous activities aimed at promoting this idea. Sadly, due to the lack of precise discussions on Mahdism and insufficient oversight from cultural custodians, on the one hand, and the public's devotion to His Holiness the Wali al-Asr , on the other, an opportunity arose for claimants to exploit. The vast number of judicial cases related to Mahdism is evidence of this claim. The author of the book 'False Mahdis' claims that over three thousand individuals claiming to be the Mahdi are imprisoned. What distinguishes this era from previous ones is the diversity of claims. For example, in this era, we can point to claimants of being the Prophet's child, frequent meetings and initiations, assisting the Imam, being specifically favored by the Imam of the Age, and numerous applications of signs to various individuals.
Interestingly, some of these claimants have multiple claims. An extreme example is Ahmad Ismail Basri who has the following claims:
Son of Imam Mahdi, the Qā'im in the narrations, the Yamani of the signs of the advent, the first Mahdis after the advent, the crucified Jesus, one of the 313 companions of Imam Mahdi, one who spoke with Moses on Mount Sinai, the crawling creature (Dābbat al-Arḍ) in the narrations, and the very lion that attacked the enemies alongside Amir al-Mu'minin in the battles of Badr and Uhud.
Ismail Basri, known among his followers as "Ahmad Al-Hasan," was born in 1968 in Basra, Iraq. He continued his education until he obtained a Bachelor's degree in Architecture.
in late 1999, at the age of 29, he migrated to Najaf at the command of Imam Mahdi (as he claims). He then realized that the teaching methods in the seminary had scientific flaws. He claims that during his years in Najaf, he was in contact with the seminary but did not study there. His followers believe that in 2002, after seeing Imam Mahdi in multiple dreams, he began to reform matters.
Furthermore, after a period of secret invitation and the belief of some individuals in him, he openly announced to the people, by order of Imam Mahdi( According to his own claim ), that he is the emissary of Imam Mahdi. He began inviting people in July 2002 in holy Najaf. Since then, he has been active by establishing powerful networks in various countries.
