The Twelfth Imam
The Twelfth Imam
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Article ID: 19
Article Date: 2025-08-11
Writer: Parsa Panahi
The Zaidiya is one of the branches of Shi'ism, with its origins dating back to the 2nd century AH (around the 8th century CE). This sect is recognized as one that, due to its specific views on Imamate and political position, is doctrinally closer to Sunni Islam than to Shi'ism.
Zaid is the son of the fourth Imam of Shi'ism. His mother "Omme Valad" was a Muslim concubine, known for her nobility, purity of heart, and piety. It is said that Mukhtar bought her and presented her to Imam Sajjad, the fourth Imam of Shia. After her emancipation by Imam Sajjad, she married Imam Sajjad.
The exact date of Zaid's birth is not definitively known, but his martyrdom is recorded in the year 121 or 122 AH.
Zaid's revolt was against the Umayyad government, led by Zaid bin Ali bin Husayn in the months of Safar in the year 121 or 122 AH, coinciding with the rule of Hisham bin Abd al-Malik during the Imamate of Imam Sadiq.(1) This uprising led to the martyrdom of Zaid and many of his companions.
According to "History of Tabari"(2) the elders of Kufa warned Zaid against this revolt and reminded him of the previous betrayals of the Kufa people against Imam Ali, Imam Hasan, and Imam Husayn (the first, second, and third Imams of Shia). However, Zaid did not heed their advice and revolted against the ruling government.
Initially, many people from Kufa and surrounding areas, whose number is said to be more than fifteen thousand(3) and forty thousand(4) according to another, pledged allegiance to Zaid bin Ali and his messengers. However, after a number of prominent figures from the tribe were imprisoned in the mosque of Kufa, only 300 individuals ultimately remained with him. The uprising began at the start of the month of Safar and, after only three days, ended in complete failure, with Zaid being martyred.
Some Shia scholars(5) believe that Zaid bin Ali had the permission from Imam Sadiq to initiate his movement. However, other researchers(6) have stated that although Zaid was sincere in his uprising and intended to hand over the caliphate to its rightful heirs if he succeeded, But Imam Sadiq advised him against this revolt.
The Zaidis consider Zaid bin Ali as their fifth Imam, and the Zaidi sect is attributed to him. Zaid is regarded as an Imam because, after the martyrdom of Imam Husayn(7), some followers of Imam Ali considered armed uprising as a requisite for Imamate without any substantial evidence. Therefore, after Zaid's martyrdom, they referred to him as an Imam, which led to their identification as Zaidis.
The Zaidis do not acknowledge Imam Muhammad Baqir , the son of Imam Sajjad, as the fifth Imam of the Shi'ites. Instead, they consider Zaid, the other son of Imam Sajjad and the brother of Imam Baqir, to be the fifth Imam. They believe that after the Imamate of Imam Ali, Imam Hasan, Imam Husayn, and Imam Sajjad, the Imamate transfers to any man from the lineage of Fatimah(11) who invites people to his Imamate and is outwardly just, knowledgeable, and brave, and with whom believers pledge allegiance for jihad.
One of the important doctrinal pillars of the Zaidis is the belief in uprising and struggle. However, this type of thinking does not solely originate from the Zaidis but has its roots in the period following the martyrdom of Imam Husayn.
The type of violence and the tragic atrocities that "Ibn Ziyad" and his army inflicted upon the grandson of the Prophet of Islam and the third Imam of Shia, Imam Husayn, and his few companions in the plain of Karbala, in addition to the many insults directed at the captives of this war, stirred the blood of many followers of Ali and lovers of the Prophet of Islam. Particularly concerning was the fact that the vast majority of the captives were women and children, some of whom were from the family of the Prophet.
Many elderly members of society at that time had witnessed the repeated kindness and affection of the Prophet of Islam towards his grandson when he was just a child. They had heard with their own ears the words of the Prophet extolling the greatness of this family, especially Imam Husayn, and conveyed their observations to the youth. Therefore, they could not tolerate the killing of such a person, especially with the unparalleled hostilities that had not been previously witnessed in any war.
This repressed anger and desire for revenge gradually fostered the idea of armed uprising as one of the main conditions of Imamate among some of the Alawites.(12)
The establishment of this political thought during the time of Imam Sajjad laid the groundwork for the Zaidis. The conflict among the Alawites stemmed from two viewpoints: cultural struggle versus armed revolt against the Umayyad regime. The outcome of this conflict appeared after the martyrdom of Imam Zain al-Abidin. Some accepted the Imamate of Imam Baqir, while others accepted the Imamate of Zaid bin Ali, the brother of Imam Muhammad Baqir, leading to their designation as Zaidis.
Accordingly, Shi'ites who believed in armed uprising recognize Zaid bin Ali as the fifth Imam after Imam Sajjad.
It is important to note that there is consensus in ancient Zaidi texts regarding the Imamate of Imam Sajjad . However, some contemporary Zaidi scholars have referred to Imam Sajjad as a "da'i" (a rank lower than an Imam) and recognized "Hasan al-Muthanna" as the Imam during the period between the martyrdom of Imam Husayn and the Imamate of Zaid bin Ali.(13)
(Hasan al-Muthanna, the son of Imam Hasan and the son-in-law of Imam Husayn, was one of the prominent Alawites present among the companions of Imam Husayn during the event of Karbala, where he was severely injured. The army of Ibn Ziyad beheaded all the wounded from the war, but Hasan al-Muthanna survived due to the mediation of one of the prominent tribal leaders of Iraq who was his uncle).
Infallibility and purity from all apparent and hidden sins are among the fundamental tenets of the beliefs of Twelver Shia regarding Imamate. In contrast, the Zaidis do not consider this condition necessary for holding the position of Imamate and do not attribute such a quality to anyone besides the first three Imams. The emphasis of the Zaidis on the position of Imamate is primarily focused on religious knowledge.
A jurisprudential school refers to a collection of shared principles, methods, and perspectives in deriving religious rulings that have been established by a jurist or a group of jurists during a specific period and are distinct from other jurisprudential schools.
Although the followers of the Zaidiya sect in the early centuries of its formation adhered to the teachings of many prominent Alawites, including Imam Muhammad Baqir and Imam Jaafar Sadiq (the fifth and sixth Imams of the Shi'ites), and sometimes claimed to follow the consensus in the family of the Prophet, starting from the 3rd century AH, new jurisprudential schools emerged that were influenced by teachings other than those of the Twelve Imams. Consequently, they gradually distanced themselves from the original teachings of the Prophet of Islam and Imam Ali.
Nonetheless, throughout history, many jurisprudential schools developed among the Zaidis, each having its own followers during certain periods. However, the predominant jurisprudential school currently having many followers in Yemen is known as "Hadaviyyeh." In general, the Zaidis, compared to the Twelver Shi'ites, are closer to Sunni Islam in their jurisprudential views and have been influenced by Sunni jurisprudence in certain matters, such as Qiyas (analogy) and Ijtihad (independent reasoning).
1. The overall view of the Zaidis regarding Mahdism is that an individual from the descendants of Fatimah will dominate the earth and fill it with justice. He will grant dignity to the oppressed and humiliate the disbelievers. The Mahdi is described with attributes such as Fatimi(It refers to the descendants of Hazrat Fatima.), Qaim, just, protector of the East and West, etc. Some Zaidis' Imams have been referred to by the title "Mahdi," and numerous narrations available in the hadith books of Zaidi scholars about the Mahdi and Qa'im confirm the acceptance and acknowledgment of the concept of Mahdism and the savior by the Zaidis. In terms of waiting for the Mahdi, there is a narration in their texts stating that whoever is awaiting the Qa'im of the Prophet's household is like someone whose blood is shed for the sake of God.
2. The Zaidis, based on their system of thought and the attributes they attribute to the Imam, define the promised Mahdi accordingly, which naturally leads to significant distinctions at this level from other Shiite sects, particularly the Imamiyah.
For instance:
- The appointment of an Imam, from the Zaidi perspective, can be summarized in a few ways, one of which is "Nass" (the explicit and clear designation of the next Imam by the Prophet or a previous Imam, by God's command). They maintain that Nass is not a necessary condition for the Imamate but a condition of perfection. In contrast, from the perspective of the Imamiyah (the Shi'ites who believe in the Twelve Imams), explicit and unmediated Nass is the most critical component in recognizing the Imams.
- According to the Zaidis, one of the attributes of an Imam is that he should be Fatimi, possess the ability to rise and fight, be knowledgeable even if not the most learned, and lead an armed uprising, among other qualities.
- Additionally, they only acknowledge infallibility for five individuals (the Prophet of Islam, his honored daughter Fatimah, and the first three Imams) and do not accept it for other Zaidi Imams. In contrast, the Imamiyah maintain that besides the Prophet of Islam and his honored daughter, all twelve Imams are infallible and free from any form of apparent or inner blemish. In truth, infallibility is viewed as a necessary and essential condition for the position of Imamate.
- Concerning the Imams divine knowledge, the their knowledge is considered ordinary, and the notion of the Imams possessing knowledge of the unseen is not entertained. Some Zaidi scholars have written, referencing hadiths in this regard, that anyone who possesses the aforementioned conditions can be an Imam. The promised Imam does not require explicit designation, infallibility, being the most learned, or possessing divine knowledge; rather, it is sufficient for him to be Fatimi, engage in an armed uprising, have the capacity to call people to fight, and possess other general attributes!
3. Although the Zaidis have transmitted narrations indicating the existence of 12 Imams in their collections and have accepted some of them, they do not believe in limiting the Imamate to a specific number. In their thought, anyone who meets the conditions of Zaidi Imamate can attain Zaidi Imamate, and there is no limitation on the number of Imams.
Essentially, unlike the Imamiyah, the Zaidis do not accept a specific individual or clear example for the awaited one. From their perspective, Mahdism is a position that can manifest in a perfect human being at any time and can include any person. In truth, the "Mahdi" for them is an ambiguous individual who is not predetermined or specified, and upon accepting his Mahdism, he becomes the highest embodiment of the perfect human in each era.
4. Since armed uprising is one of the conditions for Imamate among the Zaidis and necessitates the presence of an Imam, and considering the previous point that the awaited Mahdi is not a specific individual, the Imam should not be in concealment or occultation. In other words, within the framework of Zaidi thought, it cannot be accepted that an Imam, prior to rising with a sword, is waiting for the conditions of uprising while being in a state of occultation. This situation has contributed to the diminished expectation of relief among the Zaidis and has led to a lack of attention from Zaidi authors and thinkers. Perhaps the ineffectiveness of numerous Zaidi uprisings in the social sphere has been a factor for this apathy and the tendency to limit discussions to just a few chapters or narrations.
Throughout history, the Zaidis established governments in Tabaristan(14), Maghreb, and Yemen.
In the year 864 CE, "Hasan bin Zaid," a descendant of Imam Hasan Mujtaba (the second Imam of the Shi'ites), known as the Great Da'i and Da'i to the Truth(An inviter to the truth), who originally hailed from Medina and had migrated from Hijaz (the old name for Saudi Arabia) to Rey(15) led an uprising in Tabaristan at the request of its inhabitants, which resulted in the founding of the Alawite government of Tabaristan. Thus, the first Shiite government in Iran, known as the Alawites of Tabaristan, was established in Chalus, which is one of the pleasant cities of Tabaristan.
This government, after some time, expanded throughout Tabaristan and the surrounding areas, leading to the Zaidification of many residents in Tabaristan and Gilan. This sect remained in parts of these regions even during the Safavid era until "Khan Ahmad Khan" massacred the last group of Zaidis in Dilam, effectively ending the existence of the Zaidi faith in Tabaristan.
After the uprisings and the dispersal of followers of Zaid bin Ali and subsequent generations, groups of Zaidis migrated to the Maghreb . In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AH, the Maghreb became the center of activity for two Shiite movements:
A - The Idrisids (from the lineage of Imam Hasan, the second Imam of the Shi'ites), who predominantly had Hasanid and Zaidi inclinations.
B - Small Zaidi groups that entered with the idea of "uprising against tyranny" and calling upon the Ahl al-Bayt.
The main founder of the Zaidi government in the Maghreb was Idris bin Abdullah bin Hasan (commonly known as Idris I), who fled to the Maghreb after the event of Karbala under the command of his brother Muhammad bin Abdullah.
Idris I established a government in the city of Walīyah near present-day Fes in the year 788 CE with the support of the Berber tribes (especially the Orba tribe). However, since the majority of the region's population was Sunni, the Zaidis could not find a widespread social base.
Idris II (the son of Idris I) was able to expand the territory, but with his death in 828 CE, the government was divided among his sons and weakened. Firstly, internal conflicts among the descendants of Idris diminished the influence of the Zaidis. Secondly, pressures from the Abbasids in the east and the Fatimids (Ismailis) from the east and south reduced their political power.
On the other hand, in the fourth century AH, with the rise of the Fatimids and then the Marinids, the influence of the Zaidis in the Maghreb effectively ended, and the Maliki Sunni orientation(17)became dominant in the region.
- The key figure in establishing the Zaidi government in Yemen was "Yahya al-Rasi" (859–911 CE), known as al-Hadi ila al-Haqq(Meaning: one who guides to the right path). He was also a descendant of Imam Hasan Mujtaba (A.S), being 29 generations after the Prophet.
- In 897 CE, the tribes of northern Yemen, especially Hamdan (an area near Sanaa), invited him to act as Imam to resolve disputes and lead against the Abbasid government. He went to Yemen, established his center in Saada, and effectively founded the Zaidi government.
- Imam Yahya solidified the judicial system and Zaidi jurisprudence, united with the tribes, organized local governance, and fought against Abbasid forces and local opponents. The Zaidi Imams ruled Yemen for approximately eleven centuries. From the 3rd century until the early 14th century AH, the Zaidi government continued in the form of successive Imams. Occasionally, the weakness or disputes among the tribes created a power vacuum, but a new Imam would rise and revive the governance.
The 10th to 12th centuries AH, particularly during the reign of al-Mutawakkil Ismail (1644–1676 CE), when Yemen was unified, marked the pinnacle of Zaidi power in Yemen. However, the pressure from the Ottomans and the influence of British colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries weakened the Zaidi government. After the withdrawal of the Ottomans (1918 CE), Imam Yahya Hamid al-Din revived the Zaidi monarchy, but eventually, in 1962 CE, with the Yemeni Republican Revolution, the Zaidi monarchy fell, and the Republic of Yemen was established.
Despite this, Yemen remains the main residence of the Zaidis in the current era. According to some sources, Zaidis make up about 35 to 40 percent of the total population of Yemen. There is also a significant number of Zaidis residing in Saudi Arabia.
Following the coup in 1962, the Zaidis were isolated for two decades, but gradually entered cultural and political arenas and established various parties and organizations in Yemen. The revolutionary movement of Ansar Allah, the conservative Zaidi current, and the intellectual movement are considered active Zaidi movements in Yemen.
Footnotes:
1. The sixth Imam of the Shi'ites.
2. "Tarikh al-Tabari" is an Arabic book written by Muhammad al-Tabari (died 310 AH), a Persian Muslim historian and researcher, in the year 303 AH.
3. Tabari, "Tarikh al-Umam wal-Muluk," 1967 CE, vol. 7, p. 171.
4. Tabari, "Tarikh al-Umam wal-Muluk," 1967 CE, vol. 7, p. 168.
5. Sheikh Shams al-Din Muhammad bin Maki, known as the First Martyr, Ayatollah Khoei, and Mamaghani.
6. Allameh Tehrani.
7. The third Imam of the Shi'ites, who, along with 72 of his companions, was martyred in a brutal manner on October 13, 680, in a plain known as Karbala in Iraq.
8. Sheikh Mufid was a prominent Shiite jurist and theologian of the 4th century AH who expanded the theological school of Shi'ism.
9. The enjoining of good and forbidding of evil is one of the fundamental teachings of Shi'ism. Imam Hussain mentioned that the motivation for his uprising was the call to enjoin good and forbid evil in the last day of his life on the battlefield against his enemies.
10. Zaid bin Ali entered the court of Hisham ibn Abdul Malik (the reigning caliph) in Syria. The caliph instructed his courtiers to sit in a way that no place would be available close to him when Zaid entered. When Zaid faced this scene, he advised the caliph to observe piety. The caliph then accused Zaid of believing himself worthy of the caliphate, stating that the caliphate does not reach the son of a slave woman! In response, Zaid addressed the caliph, asking whether the caliphate is a higher position than that of prophethood, noting that despite his mother being a slave, Prophet Ismail attained the rank of prophethood. He then reminded the caliph of his lineage from Imam Ali and the Messenger of God (PBUH). The caliph ordered him to be expelled. As Zaid was leaving, he said, "No group feared the edge of the sword except that they were humiliated." When he reached Kufa, the people of Kufa gathered around him and did not leave until they pledged allegiance to him. (Sheikh Mufid, Al-Irshad, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 173.)
11. The honorable daughter of the Messenger of Islam, the wife of Imam Ali.
12. A name that was previously used to refer to the followers of Imam Ali.
13. Hosseini Jalali, "Jihad al-Imam al-Sajjad," 1418 AH, p. 30 and 31.
14. Tabaristan is a region located on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea and in the mountainous region of Alborz, which today corresponds more closely to Mazandaran province, one of the most pleasant provinces in Iran.
15. The city of Rey is one of the ancient and well-known cities of Iran located southeast of Tehran.
16. Maghreb referred to the countries in North Africa, which included present-day Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
17. Sunni Islam has four principal branches: Hanafi, Hanbali, Shafi'i, and Maliki.
